Dramatic responses in cancerous mice that received the vaccine spurred Mooney and his collaborators at the Dana-Farber Cancer Institute (DFCI) to start a phase 1 clinical trial with support from both institutes, to see if it had the same effect in human patients. This kind of study is usually undertaken by hospitals and pharmaceutical companies, but rarely inside academia. In traditional pharmaceutical and biotech environments the process of getting such an innovation into clinical trials usually takes six or seven years, in this case the vaccine was tested in its first patient just three years after initial publication of its development. The results attracted the attention of the drug giant Novartis, which licensed the technology from the Wyss Institute in 2018 and took the reins for future clinical trials, with plans to develop the concept into a treatment for multiple kinds of cancer.
“The Wyss Institute was just starting, and we knew we wanted to focus on translating discoveries from the lab to the clinic,” said Mooney. “So we saw the cancer vaccine not only as a treatment with real potential to help lots of patients, but also as an opportunity to create a path for moving novel therapies out of academia and into the real world faster. There is no way I could have run a clinical trial out of my laboratory, so being able to build a team inside the Wyss to do the experiments and manufacturing needed for the FDA application, and partnering with DFCI to organize and run the clinical trial, was really what allowed us to get to the point where we’re implanting the vaccines in cancer patients so quickly.”
One such patient, profiled in a recent Boston Globe article, remains cancer-free nearly two years after being vaccinated for advanced melanoma. But Mooney is not content to rest on his laurels. “Cancer is a complex disease, and it’s unlikely there will be a single answer for all people and all kinds of cancer, so we need to keep exploring different approaches,” he said.
One of these approaches is a partnership with another Wyss faculty member, William Shih, who has long been interested in how his research on DNA molecules that self-assemble into defined 3-D structures — also known as DNA origami — can improve the precision with which cancer therapy is delivered. Shih and Mooney are working on a joint project to see if DNA origami–based nanostructures can be incorporated into the cancer vaccine to enhance its ability to create a sustained immune response.
“When dendritic cells are activated, either in a lymph node or in the cancer vaccine, they have a decision to make: Do they initiate an antibody response, where antibodies are produced that bind to a specific pathogen and mark [the cancer cells] for destruction, or do they initiate a T-cell response, where they send T cells to destroy the pathogen directly?” explained Shih, a professor of biological chemistry and molecular pharmacology at DFCI and Harvard Medical School (HMS). “We want to nudge them toward the T-cell response, because it’s a more effective way to kill cancer cells.”
Shih’s DNA origami nanostructures take advantage of the fact that DNA is a very stable and predictable compound thanks to the strong bonds between its four chemical bases. By constructing strands of DNA whose sequences of bases along their length are precisely known, Shih and his lab have been able to design 3-D DNA structures that effectively build themselves like automated Lego blocks, and whose properties can be tuned down to the nanoscale.
For the cancer vaccine, Shih’s lab has designed a DNA “cask” structure that presents a densely packed, precisely arranged display of ligands, or molecules that bind to other molecules, which are usually found on pathogens like bacteria or viruses and are recognized by the body’s immune system as foreign. These ligands essentially produce a danger signal recognized by dendritic cells, and can make them choose to initiate a T-cell immune response more often than an antibody response. “Our initial data suggest that the precise patterning of ligands we’re able to achieve with DNA origami make a big difference in activating the dendritic cells the way we want them to be activated,” Shih said. “We have this miracle [vaccine]. Let’s make it better.”
A Neighborhood Watch for cancer
Immunology is all the rage for treating cancers after they occur, but every cancer arises from what was once a normal cell. What if we could tease out exactly what promotes the development of cancer and find a way to reduce the chances it will form in the first place? That’s a tall order, as hundreds of substances are known to cause cancer, hundreds more are suspected but unproven carcinogens, and other factors such as lifestyle and genetics all conspire to damage our DNA.
But some causes play an outsized role in cancer’s development, such as chronic inflammation, which is associated with nearly 25 percent of all human cancers. Research being undertaken by the Wyss Institute’s founding director, Donald Ingber is now investigating the possibility of treating the inflammation of the connective tissue and blood vessels that surround and support organs (known collectively as the stroma) rather than directly attacking tumors themselves.
“Understanding how stromal tissues can influence the development of cancer has intrigued me personally since the time I was a graduate student,” said Ingber, who is also the Judah Folkman Professor of Vascular Biology at HMS and Boston Children’s Hospital and a professor of bioengineering at SEAS. “We and others have shown that changes in the physical structure and composition of the stroma can promote cancer formation and, conversely, that putting cancerous cells into a healthy stromal environment can suppress tumor growth, suggesting that targeting the tumor microenvironment could lead to new cancer-reversal therapies.”
Ingber is part of a global research team tackling this problem from multiple angles as part of Cancer Research UK’s Grand Challenge, a competition it won earlier this year. Key to the project is Ingber’s organ chip technology, which allows researchers to carry out human organ–level experimentation in vitro. Each organ chip is a microfluidic culture device containing hollow microchannels that can be lined with living human epithelial and stromal cells, which experience physical conditions similar to those found in the body, including blood flow, breathing motions in the lung, peristalsis in the intestine, and so forth. The Wyss Institute has created organ chips that faithfully mimic the lung, kidney, intestine, bone marrow, brain, and more, allowing researchers to grow tumor cells within the natural microenvironments found in the body and then test treatments without exposing animals or patients to potentially harmful conditions.
“Our organ chips have shown us time and time again that in order for organ cells to function normally, they have to be provided with the right microenvironment,” said Ingber. “For this project, we will build models of different stages of cancer progression using cells isolated from human patients to understand how interactions between stromal cells and organ-lining cells change as inflammation-associated cancers form, as well as develop new ways to combat this response.”
By combining organ chips with bioinformatics and machine-learning approaches, the team hopes to identify new stromal-targeted treatments that can restore inflamed tissue to its healthy form, thereby preventing cancer progression, or induce cancerous or precancerous tissues to revert to a more normal state. By studying human cancer progression in vitro, the team also hopes to discover new diagnostics that can be used to identify the small subset of patients with inflammation-associated premalignant conditions, such as Barrett’s esophagus or ulcerative colitis, that might progress to cancer.
“Treating cancer is ultimately going to need to be a multifaceted approach, because the disease itself is so multifaceted,” Ingber said. “The Wyss Institute was founded on the basis of bringing people together from different disciplines to tackle big problems in medicine through communication and collaboration among experts with a broad range of different perspectives. Doing that within the Wyss Institute has led to advances like organ chips, and doing that at a larger scale, such as with the Grand Challenge, allows whole institutions to put their resources together and drive real change for millions of patients living with devastating diseases like cancer worldwide.”
Whether targeting blood cells, the immune system, or stromal tissue, all of these projects are guided by the principle of using existing biological elements as the basis for new therapies, rather than trying to invent new cures from scratch.
“The human body is a marvel of biological engineering that has been tuned over millions of years to be able to fight off threats and heal itself,” said Ingber. “When we can recognize its inherent abilities and work with them rather than against them, we are taking full advantage of all the experimentation that evolution has already done for us. We believe this type of interdisciplinary, bio-inspired approach can help create more new treatments for cancer and other complicated diseases much more effectively than traditional drug development strategies.”